The Composition of the Standard Model Elementary Particles
The purpose of this paper is to describe the structure of the Standard Model quarks, leptons and bosons . And suggest another possible quark and another possible hadron.
Knucks
I postulate that photons and the Standard Model quarks, leptons and bosons are all composed of smaller massless particles which I will call “knucks” (this seems like an inelegant name for something fundamental). I visualize a “knuck” as shaped in our three dimensions like a child’s game “jack” or “knucklebone” with six “pointers” in three axes coming from the center. I have assumed that the three axes are at right angles to each other but the angles may change in relation to each other.
I postulate that the fundamental electrical charge is one third the charge on an electron. Each knuck has one-third of the charge of an electron. There are positive and negative knucks. Electrical charge is conserved in all interactions. There is no conservation of knucks- they can be created and destroyed in interactions. The positive and negative knucks are each others antiparticles.
The six “pointers” all have different properties – two opposing “pointers” are for electrical forces, two opposing “pointers” are for magnetic forces, and two opposing “pointers” are for gravitational forces. There are right handed and left-handed knucks. At the scale of the knucks all forces- electrical, magnetic and gravitational – are only in the direction of the pointers and are carried by Maxwell’s virtual photons and by gravitons.
I postulate that the knucks are massless but they carry all of the mass and energy in the universe in the number of a property I am calling “rotations” – around their three axes – which I have designated as rotational units (RU). One RU has energy equal to one half of a Planck unit (3.3E-34 joule ). Knucks can “rotate” at different rates in each axis.
Photons
Photons of radio, infrared, visible light, UV, X-ray and gamma rays are pairs of knucks – one positive and one negative – moving at the speed of light in a straight path that we associate with a beam of light (primary path) and also oscillating normal to the primary path of the photon. The photon of electromagnetic radiation is made of two knucks – one positive and one negative – bound to each other by gravity.
Each knuck in the pair of knucks also moves at the speed of light in a direction normal (90 degrees) to the primary path for a distance equal to one fourth of the wavelength of the photon at which point it reverses its direction 180 degrees and turns toward the primary path. When it reaches the primary path it continues past the primary path for a distance of one fourth of the wave length at which point it reverses its direction 180 degrees and moves one fourth of the wave length toward the primary path – ad infinitum. The rate of cycling of the pair of knucks depends on their energy.
It seems obvious that the two knucks must interact with each other over the distance of one fourth of their wavelength and probably have a cross section for interaction that is relatively large. The two knucks probably rotate on the gravity axis.
Since a (very low frequency) photon with an energy of one Planck unit would have the energy distributed between the two knucks then the unit of knuck rotational energy (RU) is one half of a Planck unit (½ of 6.62607015E−34 joule).
Knuck “Rings”
I postulate knucks can form “rings” (they are actually polygons since the knucks move in straight lines). Rings with a net electrical charge (-ie. +1/3, +2/3, +1, -1/3, -2/3, -1) behave differently from uncharged rings with an equal number of positive and negative charges. The knucks in rings with a net positive or negative electrical charge move in paths that depend on a specific number of RUs in the gravitational axis of each knuck in the ring.
A ring of three negative knucks alone is the electron.
A ring with five knucks- one positive and four negative – is the muon.
A ring with seven knucks- two positive and five negative – is the tao.
A ring with three knucks is flat but a ring with an odd number of positive and negative knucks is probably not flat.
The rings with an even number of knucks and no net electrical charge are the neutrinos. Neutrinos can have varied energy depending on their origin. The electron neutrino is a ring of four knucks- two positive and two negative. The muon neutrino is a ring of six knucks- three positive and three negative. The tao neutrino is a ring of eight knucks – four positive and four negative. The uncharged rings are more stable than the charged rings. The charged rings each require a specific energy to remain stable. The uncharged rings ( equal number of positive and negative knucks) are stable at a wide range of total energy.
All the knucks in rings are probably bound together by gravity.
Bosons
I postulate that bosons are linear arrangements of knucks (there are undoubtedly some angles instead of straight lines). The attractive force between the knucks in all the bosons is a combination of electrical and magnetic forces.
The Higgs boson is made of eight knucks, four positive and four negative, bound together in a line (+-+–+-+ or-+-++-+-) with both ends having the same charge, The W+ is made of seven knucks, five positive and two negative, bound together in a line (++++-+-). The W- is made of seven knucks, five negative and two positive, bound together in a line (—-+-+).The Z is made of six knucks bound together in a line with three positive and three negative (+-+-+-).
The gluons are probably linear arrangements of four knucks with two positive and two negative knucks. They are lined up north to south (NS NS NS NS) and they are also lined up positive to negative (+-+-). The gluon needs a positive at one end and a negative at the other end to have a spin of one. There are eight different “color” versions of the gluon with only four knucks ( “color” is a property that has no relationship with the visual spectrum but is probably descriptive of the orientation of the knucks in the gluons and the quarks that interact with them). This implies that the gravitation axis has two distinctly different “pointers” that can be lined up in multiple combinations.
Leptons
I postulate that all the leptons are two dimensional. I postulate the electron is two dimensional – three negative knucks “oscillating” in a triangular path in a plane. All three knucks have the same 1/3 negative charge. The positron is similar with three 1/3 positive charged knucks.
I postulate the muon is made of five knucks – probably four negative knucks and one positive knuck “oscillating” in a pentagonal path in a plane.
I postulate the tau is made of seven knucks – probably five negative knucks and two positive knucks “oscillating” in a heptagonal path in a plane.
“Oscillating” means the individual knucks continuously move in straight lines at the speed of light and turn abruptly -at their polygonal angle- probably halfway through their polygonal path and reverse direction at the end of their path .
I remember reading many years ago about an experiment that found the diameter of an electron was essentially zero down to 1.0 E-18 meters. Measuring the electron size is probably like measuring a flat plate with a thickness of twice the Planck length (3.2E-35 meters). A free electron made of three knucks with a combined mass of 0.51 MeV/c^2 would have each side with 0.17 MeV/c^2 and a side Compton wave length of 4.0E-11 meters. The electron as a whole has a Compton wave length of 1.2E-12 meters. For comparison a proton has a measured diameter of 1.68 E-15 meters and a Compton wave length of 1.32E-15 meters. If the electron is spherical it should measure about 4.0E-11 meters and it experimentally measures less than 1.0E-18 meters.
The electron should not have a dipole moment. The other leptons, muon and tau, should have a dipole moment. The electron, muon and tau all have north and south magnetic poles. The antileptons are identical except with opposite charges.
Neutrinos
I postulate that neutrinos all travel in a straight line (external gravity may deflect them like it deflects photons) at the speed of light in a direction which I will call the “neutrino path”. The neutrinos are composed of pairs of knucks. I speculate that the individual knuck paths are all in the shape of “oscillating” polygons . “Oscillating” means the individual knucks probably move in straight lines perpendicular to the direction of the neutrino path and turn abruptly -at their polygonal angle- halfway through their polygonal path. They probably continue motion in a straight line and then reverse their direction of motion 180 degrees when they have “ counted” up to about 1E-43 at a “counting” rate determined by the energy of the knuck. The rate of “counting” is determined by the number of RUs in the polygonal paths. This “counting” of the energy occurs with each cycle of the knuck in a plane normal to the direction of motion. The knucks move in a straight line at the speed of light and turn abruptly. The knucks in all the rings are probably bound together by gravity. The neutrinos are their own antiparticles.
The electron neutrino is four knucks – two positive and two negative- in a square in a plane “oscillating” in a plane normal to the direction of motion and attracted to each other by gravity. It travels at the speed of light.
The muon neutrino is made of six knucks – three negative and three positive- arranged in a hexagon in a plane “oscillating” in a plane normal to the direction of motion and attracted to each other by gravity. It travels at the speed of light.
The tau neutrino is made of eight knucks – four negative and four positive- arranged in an octagon “oscillating” in a plane normal to the direction of motion and attracted to each other by gravity. It travels at the speed of light.
Neutrinos are different from the other leptons and the quarks formed from knucks in that their rings are electrically neutral and the positive and negative charges are opposed in every case in the structure.
Neutrinos come in three “flavors” : electron neutrino, muon neutrino, and tau neutrino ( obviously “flavors” has no relationship to taste of food). It is unclear why neutrinos change flavors but pairs of knucks are easily formed and annihilated. The muon neutrino could be made by adding a pair of knucks ( one positive and one negative) to an electron neutrino and a tau neutrino could be made by adding a pair of knucks to a muon neutrino. The muon neutrino could be made by removing a pair of knucks ( one positive and one negative) from a tau neutrino and an electron neutrino could be made by removing a pair of knucks from a muon neutrino.There is no conservation of knuck pairs. The conservation of energy requires that the masses of the three types of neutrinos be equal during a conversion or explain where the energy goes or comes from. Neutrinos are moving at the speed of light and they may interact with other particles or other neutrinos and add or lose knuck pairs and gain or lose energy in the process.
Neutrinos could oscillate from corner to corner between the knucks with opposite charges or magnetic poles and such oscillations could play a role in changing flavors.
Quarks
I postulate that the quarks are three dimensional and are composed of knucks. The “fractional charge” on the quarks is a misnomer – the fundamental electrical charge is 1/3 of the charge on a single electron. The various quarks have one or two excess 1/3 charges. The quarks with an even number of knucks per quark have a charge of +2/3 and the quarks with an odd number of knucks per quark have a charge of -1/3. The antiquarks are identical except with opposite charges.
All of the quarks incorporate “rings” of knucks – probably bound together by gravity . I postulate “axles” in the quark structures. These are knucks oscillating back and forth through the center of a triangle in up, down and charm quarks and through the center of a pentagon in strange and top quarks and through the center of a heptagon in the bottom quark. Probably magnetic force is the attractive force that sustains the axle oscillations. Additionally the charm quark and top quark have one knuck ”circling” inside the ring in the plane of the ring and held in the plane of the outer ring by electrical attraction.
I postulate that the “axle” knucks interacting with gluons are the source of the strong force.
Specifically, the up quark is made of four knucks (3 positive and 1 negative), with two positive knucks and one negative knuck moving in a triangular path and bound by gravity and a third positive knuck moving perpendicularly through the center of the triangle and oscillating back and forth – probably held by magnetic attraction and repulsion – like an “axle” in a triangular (lumpy !) wheel.
The down quark is made of five knucks (2 positive and 3 negative) with two negative knucks and one positive knuck moving in a triangular path and bound by gravity and a positive knuck and a negative knuck pair moving in a path perpendicular to the plane of the triangle and through the triangle and oscillating back and forth – probably held by magnetic attraction and repulsion – like an “axle” in a triangular (lumpy !) wheel.
The charm quark is made of six knucks – two negative and four positive – with two negative knucks and one positive knuck moving in a triangular path and bound by gravity and a positive knuck and a negative knuck as an “axle” and with a single positive knuck moving in a triangular path inside the center of the outside three knuck ring, in the plane of the ring, and held by electrical attraction. It is essentially an anti down quark with an additional knuck “circling ” ( in a triangular path) inside the outer “ring”. Most of the energy in the charm quark is in the knuck circling inside the outer ring.
The strange quark is made of seven knucks – four negative and three positive. It has five knucks at the corners of a pentagon and a positive knuck and a negative knuck as an “axle” . The five knucks forming the pentagon (three negative and two positive) are held together by gravity and are moving in a pentagonal path around the two “axle” knucks (one positive and one negative) in the center which are oscillating back and forth perpendicularly to the “ring” and are probably held in their path by magnetic attraction and repulsion.
The top quark is made of eight knucks (five positive and three negative). It is configured like an anti strange quark with the addition of a single positive knuck “circling” in a pentagonal path inside the five knuck outer pentagonal “ring” and around the “axle” and in the plane of the outer pentagon and held by electrical attraction. Most of the energy in the top quark is in the knuck circling inside the outer ring.
The bottom quark is made of nine knucks – five negative and four positive. The bottom quark is arranged with seven knucks (four negative and three positive) at the corners of a flat heptagon and with two knucks ( one positive and one negative) oscillating as an “axle” through the center. The seven knucks forming the heptagon are held together by gravity and are circling around the two knucks in the axle. The two knucks in the axle are probably held in their path by magnetic attraction and repulsion.
Probably all quarks are unstable unless they are bonded to another quark by gluons attached to the axles in the center of the quark rings.
The Nature of “Axles”
Five of the six quarks are made of a “ring” (actually a polygon) of knucks with a pair of knucks oscillating in the center of the ring in a path normal to the plane of the ring. The up quark has only one knuck oscillating in a path normal to the plane of the ring in the center of the ring. I am calling the knucks oscillating in the centers of the rings “axle” knucks. The axle knuck energies are large compared to the energies of the sides of the rings in quarks so the path lengths of the axle knucks are comparatively short. The knucks in the axles are probably oscillating in a path normal to the plane of the quark ring.
The rotation of the quark ring, the overall energy level of the quark , and the positions of the axle knucks probably determine the “color charge “of a quark. “Color” is a property that has no relationship with the visual spectrum but is probably descriptive of the energy level and configuration of the quarks and gluons that interact with each other. The quarks probably maintain a constant ring energy and move into and out of energy levels (analogous to electrons which maintain their ring energy while moving between energy levels in atomic orbitals). An axle knuck probably remains a part of its quark but may also be part of a gluon.
I am defining “excess axle knucks” as the number of axle knucks in a particle in excess of the number of quarks in the particle. The stability of neutrons, protons and small atomic nuclei appears to depend on effective pairing of excess axle knucks. The proton which has one excess axle knuck is stable. The neutron with two excess axle knucks has a half life of about 10 minutes. Helium 2 with two unpaired excess axle knucks between two protons has a (surprising to me) life on the order of 1E-9 seconds. Deuterium with three excess axle knucks between the proton and neutron is stable. Helium 3 with four excess axle knucks is stable. Apparently each of the two protons pairs its excess axle knuck with an axle knuck on the single neutron between them. All other stable atomic nucleii have at least an equal or greater number of neutrons than protons.Tritium with five excess axle knucks between one proton and three neutrons has a half life of about 12 years. Helium 4 with six excess axle knucks between two protons and two neutrons is stable. All higher isotopes of helium and hydrogen are unstable.
The interactions between axles and gluons and gluons with gluons are the source of the strong force.
Gluons are formed and decayed continuously in protons and neutrons and in the process they break into photons. Protons and neutrons do not radiate photons which means the photons generated in the actions and interactions of gluons do not leave the protons and neutrons- which probably means the photons generated inside protons and neutrons are contained inside the rings (triangles of knucks) of the up and down quarks that make up the protons and neutrons.
Wave Particle Duality
It is necessary to realize that my description of the fundamental particles is limited to the “particle” side of the elementary .particles. All particles exhibit wave/particle duality. The proton has to be in the shape of a triangle made of three quarks but with its wave properties it acts like a hard sphere. In a similar manner the electron in a hydrogen atom has a mass and velocity. The electrons centrifugal force is countered by electrical attraction of the positive proton nucleus. But the electron occupies specific spherical orbitals and nothing in between.
Energy Relationships in Elementary Particles
I remember many years ago hearing that physicists measured the diameter of a proton by shooting protons at each other but when they tried the same thing with electrons they came out with essentially zero diameter for the electron. The electron has a Compton wave length of 2.4E−12 m. The proton has a Compton wave length of 1.3E-15 meters. The measured proton diameter is 1.3E-15 meters. The electron diameter mesured the same way is less than 1.0E -18 meters
I remember hearing that Quarks had 1/3 and 2/3 electrical charges and I thought that was ridiculous based on Millican’s measurements. But when I realized that physicists accepted this I postulated that the electron is made of three particles with 1/3 of the charge of an electron.
Using Coulombs law there is a 4E-15 N force of repulsion between two particles with 1/3 of the charge of an electron separated by a distance of 2.4E−12 m and this implies that the forces inside an electron made of three individual particles are directional and not uniform. This is illustrated by the “right hand rule”. When moving electrons are oriented in a magnetic field the electric charge is directional – it is 90 degrees from the magnetic direction and not in any other direction.
This analysis is based on the postulate that the particles making up an electron exert their magnetic , electrical and gravitational forces from axes at right angles to each other and I visualize them shaped like a child’s game jack or knucklebone and I am calling them “knucks” ( an inelegant name for a fundamental particle ?). There are positive and negative knucks. There are right handed and left handed knucks if the six axes are all different. Knuck pairs are created in many particle interactions and knuck pairs can annihilate each other but charge is always preserved.
If the electron is made of three knucks then the only nonlinear arrangement an electron can have is a triangle and the electron is a two dimensional particle. A flat plate. Shooting electrons toward each other proobably means they will pass each other edgewise without collision and show essentially unmeasurable size. Shooting electron beams toward each other at an angle or shooting neutrons through an electron beam at different angles should result in interference and allow calculation of electron size.
Somewhere I read that in accelerators electrons scatter in the same manner that points, not spinning spheres, would scatter.
Looking at the standard model of elementary particles I postulate that all the bosons are one dimensional, all the leptons are two dimensional, and all the quarks are three-dimensional. I have added the “knuck number” to the description of each standard model elementary particle. The knuck number of a particle is the number of knucks used to make the particle.
Knuck number Particle name Particle configuration Mass (MeV/c^2)
(underlined means a ring)
Bosons
2 Photon + – variable
4 Gluon +-+- unknown
6 Z +-+-+- 91190
7 W+ ++++-+- 80390
7 W- – – – – + – + 80390
8 Higgs +-+- -+-+ 124970
Leptons
3 Electron – – – 0.511
4 Electron Neutrino +-+- variable
5 Muon +- – – – 105.66
6 Muon Neutrino +-+-+- variable
7 Tau +-+- – – – 1776.8
8 Tau Neutrino +-+-+-+- variable
Quarks
4 Up Quark +-+ + 2.2
5 Down Quark -+- +- 4.7
6 Charm Quark +-+ +- + 1280
7 Strange Quark -+-+- +- 96
8 Top Quark +-+-+ +- + 173100
9 Bottom Quark ++- – +- – +- 4180
The bosons are linear strings of positive and negative knucks “bonded” together by magnetic and electrical attraction – they always line up north pole to south pole and usually positive to negative. I visualize them as strings of knucks formed in the nucleus and moving rapidly toward each other, accelerating, generating gravitons and annihilating each other with their energy somehow retained in the nucleus. This appears to happen even when the nucleus is only a single proton. The approximate energy in the bosons in the various combinations of knucks in MeV/c^2 is as follows:
north pole to south pole +11910
positive to negative +5955
positive to positive and negative to negative (repulsion) -2977
photon – one positive and one negative knuck +-
the photons do not behave like the other bosons – they can have a wide range of energy
gluon four knucks – 2 positive and 2 negative +-+-
gluon has 3 N/S and 3 positive / negative
estimated 54714 no accepted value
Z six knucks – 3 positive and three negative +-+-+-
Z has 5 N/S and 5 positive / negative
estimated 91190 accepted value 91190
W+ seven knucks- 5 positive and 2 negative ++++-+-
W+ has 6 N/S and 3 positive / negative and 3 positive / positive
estimated 80394 accepted value 80390
W- is the same
Higgs eight knucks- 4 positive and 4 negative +-+- -+-+ -+-++-+-
Higgs has 7 N/S and 6 positive / negative and 1 negative / negative
estimated 117987 accepted value 124970
If the Higgs had a spin of one instead of a spin of zero it would fit better at 125055
The leptons are all planar and are all connected in polygons. The knucks in their polygons are “bonded” together by gravity (modified by electrical interaction) and not by magnetic forces. The electron and the neutrinos are all regular polygons. The muon and the tau are not regular polygons and they have two different “bond” lengths in their polygon shapes..
The energy in the neutrinos is variable and depends on how they originated. The Electron Neutrino is four knucks , two positive and two negative, in a flat square. The Muon Neutrino is six knucks, three positive and three negative, arranged in a flat hexagon, The Tau Neutrino is made of eight knucks , four positive and four negative , arranged in a flat octagon.
The energy between knuck pairs in the “rings” of the various combinations of knucks, in MeV/c^2 , is as follows:
for triangle
positive to negative 0.05
positive to positive and negative to negative 0.17
for pentagon
positive to negative 6.9
positive to positive and negative to negative 30.6
for heptagon
positive to negative 95
positive to positive and negative to negative 650
Electron is a triangle with three negative knucks
three negative to negative
estimated 0.511 accepted value 0.511 \
Muon is a pentagon with one positive and four negative knucks
two positive to negative and three negative to negative
estimated 105.6 accepted value 105.66
Tau is a heptagon with two positive and five negative knucks
four positive to negative and three negative to negative
estimated 1775 accepted value 1730
The quark particles all are composed of knucks in flat polygons (none of these polygons are regular) similar to those in the electron, muon and tau but in addition they all have one or two knucks oscillating back and forth in a path perpendicular to the plane of their particular polygon. (Like axles in a wheel and for convenience I will refer to them as “axles”). The knucks oscillating back and forth in a path perpendicular to the plane of their particular polygon ( the axles) are held in their path by magnetic attraction. The charm quark and the top quark both have an additional single knuck moving in a polygonal pattern inside their outer flat polygon , circling the axle, and in the plane of the outer flat polygon and held in place by electrical repulsion – I will call it the “inner knuck”. The inner knuck carries most of the energy of the particle.
The energy of axles in the various combinations of knucks, in MeV/c^2 , is as follows:
single axle inside a triangle 1.74
double axle inside a triangle 2.26
double axle inside a pentagon 18.9
double axle inside a heptagon 900
inner knuck inside a triangle 1270
inner knuck inside a pentagon 172000
The up quark has two positive knucks and one negative knuck in a triangle and one single axle inside a triangle One positive to positive and two positive to negative knucks .27
One single axle knuck inside a triangle 1.74
total 2.01
estimated 2.01 accepted value 2.2
The down quark has two negative knucks and one positive knuck in a triangle and two double axle knucks.
One negative to negative and two positive to negative knucks .27
two double axle knucks inside a triangle 4.52
total 4.79
estimated 4.79 accepted value 4.7
The charm quark has two positive knucks and one negative knuck in a triangle and two double axle knucks
The charm quark has an inner knuck inside an outer triangle 1270
One positive to positive and two positive to negative knucks .27
two double axle knucks inside a triangle 4.52
total 1275
estimated 1275 accepted value 1280
The strange quark has three negative knucks and two positive knuck in a pentagon and two double axle knucks.
One negative to negative and four positive to negative knucks 58.2
two double axles inside a pentagon 37.8
total 96
estimated 96 accepted value 96
The top quark has three positive knucks and two negative knucks in a pentagon and two double axle knucks.
The top quark has one inner positive knuck in a pentagonal path inside an outer pentagon 172000
One positive to positive and four positive to negative knucks 58.2
two double axle knucks inside a pentagon 37.8
total 172096
estimated 172096 accepted value 172440
The bottom quark has four negative knucks and three positive knucks in a heptagon and two double axle knucks.
Three negative to negative or positive to positive and four positive to negative knucks 2330
two double axle knucks inside a heptagon 1800
total
estimated 4130 accepted value 4180
There are undoubtedly other variables that need to be considered but generally using the same energy amount for similar knuck arrangements in all structures gives a good result.
Dark Matter
I postulate that conditions that result in the formation of up quarks may also result in formation of an unknown particle I am naming a “dark quark”. The dark quark has a ring of three knucks ( two positive and one negative) like the up quark but has a negative knuck for an axle where the up quark has a positive knuck for an axle. The postulated dark quark has no net electrical charge while the up quark has a charge of +2/3. The antidark quark is similar but with opposite charges.
I postulate that three dark quarks or a combination of dark quarks and antidark quarks could make a hadron that I am naming the “darkon”. The mass of the postulated darkon is slightly less than the mass of the neutron or proton and does not interact with the strong force in the nucleus of an atom.
I postulate that the number of excess axle knucks in the neutron (which has two excess axle knucks), the proton (which has one excess axle knuck) and the postulated darkon (which has no excess axle knucks) is the determining factor in the hadron particle stability and hadron ability to interact by the strong nuclear force.
I cannot explain the absence of other hadrons with fractional charges if dark quarks and up and down quarks are regularly created together and can combine.
